Managerial accounting and finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Administrative bookkeeping and account - Essay Example which requires the depreciable period to start from when gear is accessible for use to the period when it is derecognized (International Accounting Standards Board 2003), the devaluation in the given case has been represented four months. Also, based on the way that additional utilization of creation line for two additional months would decrease its piece esteem, one can analogize that the creation line would not be as ‘good’ as another machine even in four months and consequently ought to be devalued month-wise. The yearly compensation of creation staff is deteriorated into month to month pay given that pay will be paid to them up till the month when they are sacked. [That’s why the association may have arranged notification installments for the staff as they would free the pay rates on the rest of the months of the year when they will be sacked]. Submitted fixed expenses are expected as those costs, for example, power charges, which are brought about on month to month premise thus the yearly fixed expense in disintegrated into month to month repaired cost and is taken till the time of creation in the modern unit. Lease cost, submitted fixed expense, and compensation cost for starting four months and variable expense of beginning 500 units is likewise considered as sunk expense since these expenses have been brought about before making any stride regarding any of the two choices. All the gradual figures are steady in examination with the figures brought about before considering both of the arrangement. That is, every one of the two arrangements is dissected in steady structure when contrasted with the expense acquired before going for any of these two alternatives; dislike that gradual figures of one arrangement are communicated as steady in correlation with the base figures of either bargain. Rather the underlying figures are communicated as base figures for every one of the arrangements. This is intended to easily look at each arrangement from the underlying circumstance independently and afterward contrasting the steady aftereffects of each. Looking with the serious expense of composing

Mental Jewelry free essay sample

Live, another band that has as of late surfaced on the music scene has discharged its first collection, Mental Jewelry. They remark on war, harmony, contamination and a shared love all through mankind. Live isn't simply one more band with an excessive amount of bass or verses that has neither rhyme nor reason. They join a beat that feels great to tune in to with verses that remark on the present issues of today, yet in addition the general issues of humankind. Lives style intently contrasts and R.E.M. be that as it may, without the preposterousness of some of R.E.M.s work like Stand and Shiny Happy People. Live has extraordinary ability for creating incredible melodies. They compose every one of their melodies, uncommon in todays music world. Live shows their instrumental ability likewise in a portion of their performances. The main melody, Pain Lies on the Riverside, starts with a percussion solo. The message is that on the off chance that you are on the riverside, you are simply an onlooker of life trusting that something will transpire. We will compose a custom article test on Mental Jewelry or on the other hand any comparative theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page Be that as it may, in the event that you are in the stream, you are getting things going and are in the standard. Another tune, Operation Spirit, questions Christianity. It asks, Does Jesus, a man who lived 2,000 years back, mean anything to us today? What job (other than somebody to go to) does Jesus take in our regular day to day existences? None is their decision. The melody with the most significant message is Take My Anthem. It expresses that all individuals here and wherever are the equivalent in essence and there are no contrasts between them with the exception of the distinctions they make between themselves. So we as a whole should cherish each other as though we were siblings. I feel this collection is an absolute necessity purchase. It contains provocative verses as well as has music between the substantial and the light. Its all inclusive thoughts of fellowship between the sum total of what men has been overlooked today and our disparities separate us as opposed to our similitudes uniting us. This is the reason Live is the band for the Nineties. n

How to Structure an Employee Bonus Plan

How to Structure an Employee Bonus Plan Bonuses are seen as a great motivational tool for employees. Employees work in order to earn the compensation that is negotiated for the work, but they will be inclined to do better â€" to go beyond what is expected of them in the performance of their tasks as set out in their job descriptions â€" if they can expect to get more for it, specifically a bonus.You often hear about companies giving bonuses, not only for higher-than-average productivity and exemplary performance from employees, but also during specific periods of the year.Examples are specific holiday bonuses and yearend bonuses, which gradually grow into regular annual bonuses.However, employee bonuses are also seen as a two-edged swords. They are great motivators, but they can also become de-motivators, especially when employees become accustomed to them, to the point that they deem them to be their right, and something that they can demand.After all, if you look at various definitions of the word “bonus”, you will f ind words such as “additional” and “seasonal” attached.Whether employees will motivate or demotivate will depend on how management approaches this whole issue on bonuses from the beginning. It all begins with how they create and structure an employee bonus plan. © Shutterstock.com | David ArtsIn this article, you will learn everything about 1) employee bonus plans and 2) how to structure an employee bonus plan.EMPLOYEE BONUS PLANSWith so many types of bonuses given to employees these days, there is a need to keep track of all of them and, once in a while, evaluate whether they accomplish what they were supposed to. For that, there should be a system or a plan in place. It is called the employee bonus program or employee bonus plan.An employee bonus plan, which is also often referred to as an employee incentive plan, is essentially a document that contains the company’s plan for the payments of bonuses to its employees on an annual basis. This is highly encouraged for businesses that regularly give bonuses to its employees.The importance of bonus or incentive plans can be equated to that of the importance of bonuses and incentives given to employees. Let’s look at some of them.An employee bonus plan will motivate employees to improve the ir job performance and help the business achieve its goals.A company tends to be more attractive to prospective applicants or candidates for a job if they know that the business has employee bonus plans for its employees. As a result, it is more likely to attract more skilled individuals who would normally have passed on the opportunity.Employees need to be fully informed about their rights and privileges, including their compensation and benefits, and that includes the potential rewards that they can get. This will inform them in advance what they have to do to earn these rewards or bonuses.If there is a bonus plan in place, the business will be better able to control the amounts that it will pay in bonuses to its employees. It can set limits and make the necessary adjustments if and when necessary.This will also aid management when it comes to budgeting and forecasting expenditures. The company’s financial planning will most definitely refer to the bonus plan from time to time.T ypes of Employee Bonus PlansLet us name a few of the more common employee bonus programs that are being used by businesses. The bonus plans are dependent on the particular type of bonus being given.Performance Bonus: The company sets targets that employees must achieve or surpass. Once they do, they will be entitled to a corresponding bonus, in recognition of their very good performance. This type of performance bonus plan is designed to continuously give employees an incentive to perform better than average in their jobs or assigned tasks and responsibilities. It is usually given on a regular or ongoing basis, such as annually or semi-annually. Another reason why performance bonus is encouraged is in order to keep a company’s top talents and skills satisfied.Ad Hoc Bonus: When the company gives an unplanned or unexpected bonus as a way to show its gratitude to employees for exceptional performance in a one-off project or assignment, this is referred to as an Ad Hoc bonus. This bo nus plan is slightly more flexible, considering the fact that it is largely unplanned. That means that the company is not expected to have an upfront commitment about it; after all, payment of this type of bonus can be decided on the spot â€" when the results come in. Another advantage of this plan is that little emphasis or importance is placed on the amount. It does not have to be large or substantial to be considered effective. The mere fact that an amount â€" no matter how small â€" is given, is already something that the employees will appreciate.Milestone Bonus: Milestone or project bonus plans cover the bonuses that are deadline-critical or time-bound. These are usually short-term in nature, usually ranging from a couple to several months. They are also often high profile in nature, which requires that they be well-documented and communicated to all parties concerned.Elements of an Effective Employee Bonus PlanThere is no such thing as a perfect bonus program. If there is, th en we would not hear of issues involving employee strikes, pay hikes, and unmotivated employees.The best that companies can do is to make sure they have an effective employee bonus program in place. An effective bonus program should have the following elements: Simplicity. The bonus plan should be simple and straightforward, so that it is easy enough to understand, not just by the management, but also by the employees, who are going to receive them. Equatability. The bonus program should be fair across the whole company. It would not be fair if one department has a bonus program, while the others do not. If you have a bonus program in place, make sure that the terms apply to everyone, not just a select number of divisions or departments or, worse, employees. Timeliness. This refers to the release or grant of the bonuses. The frequency may vary according to the achievement of specific milestones set by the company, or according to job level. It could also be according to department. Just make sure there are no unnecessary delays. If the bonus is given as a reward for good performance for a certain period, give the bonuses at the end of that same period or during the next period. It would seem anticlimactic, not to mention disappointingly delayed, if you pay it two or three periods later. Relevance. It should be meaningful to everyone â€" the management and the employees. There should be meaning attached to the bonus, so that the employee will feel a higher sense of fulfillment, knowing they are receiving the bonuses because they deserved it. Materiality. If the bonus is so small that it is almost insignificant, employees will not appreciate it. In fact, most of them may even feel insulted by it, and make their motivation to do their work go down. The amount of bonus must be large or significant enough to make a difference to the employee. Otherwise, it would not even be regarded as a bonus or reward.STRUCTURING AN EMPLOYEE BONUS PLANMany companies have experien ced having bonus plans that failed, and this failure is blamed on one of two things (or both): the bonus plan was poorly designed or it was not implemented properly.Factors to Consider When Designing an Employee Bonus PlanBusiness Goals: What are the ultimate goals that the business wants to achieve? By identifying these goals, management can then proceed to identifying the steps that must be taken in order to attain them. If the business intends to become profitable and expand globally, then it will no doubt recognize the importance of its human resources. Investing in its human resources, such as recruitment of brilliant minds and top talents, as well as training them, will rank high on the list of priorities of the management. The importance of the employees will most certainly be underlined.Business and Financial Constraints: If businesses had a bottomless pit of cash to get their resources from, then there would be no issues at all to consider. However, this is not the case. Sm all companies, particularly those that are just starting out, may not afford to give too generous bonuses to their employees. Some companies may be bigger and have more assets, but are strapped for cash that will be paid to employees as bonuses. It is possible that a company’s cash reserve may be tied up in a project, so there is no ready or available source for bonus payments. These are only a few of the constraints that businesses have to consider when designing its employee bonus plan.Market and Industry Trends: Of course, the business should also take note of the bigger picture. There may be industrial standards that they can base their employee bonus policies on. In many instances, these standards are used as the minimum. Some companies may also be motivated to give their employees higher bonuses so they would not be tempted to jump ship and look for employment elsewhere, say, in one of their competitors.Employee Demographics and Preferences: It is the employees who will rece ive the bonuses, and it is also the employees that you aim to reward and motivate. Therefore, they should also be considered, particularly their preferences. Their demographics should also be taken into account.Desired Results and Behaviors from Employees: This is in line with the reason why businesses give bonuses to their employees in the first place: to reward them for a job well done, and to motivate them to do even better. When structuring a bonus plan, the business should know exactly what it wants to achieve, or what results it expects to see once the bonus plan has been implemented. This will make evaluation later on much easier, when it is time for the business to assess whether the bonuses are truly motivating their employees and improving employee performance.How to Structure the Employee Bonus PlanNow we have come to the part where we are going to structure the bonus plan. We have already gone through the key elements that an effective employee bonus program should have. From these elements, management may already get an idea on how to go about designing their programs.Some first ideas on how to structure your employee bonus plan can be found in this short video. Before you can start structuring, however, it is imperative that you are clear on why you are creating the employee bonus plan, to begin with.Maybe you want to reward your employees and encourage them to perform better. Maybe you also want to boost their morale and cement their loyalty to the company. Or it could be your way of responding to how your competitors are treating their own employees, so you can keep your own reputation high. Your reasons will dictate how you will structure the plan.Put the employee bonus plan in writing. We have already established that the employee bonus plan is a document containing the details of the bonus program. The details must be put down in writing, and subsequently communicated to all the employees, for their information. The bonus program will not be of any use, and will not achieve the desired results, if it remains in the hands of the management, and the employees are not aware of what it contains. This is also to avoid any misunderstandings about the company’s policies about giving bonuses and incentives to employees.Base the bonus on results that are measurable or quantifiable. The rewards must be directly traceable to measurable performance standards. Opinions, which are mostly subjective, are not acceptable. The performance standards must not only be identifiable, but also quantifiable. They should be specific, so it is easier for employees and management to immediately recognize how the bonuses are contingent on the achievement of these standards.Give incentives to employees to meet goals. The incentives should be convincing enough for the employees to help the company meet its goals. It is a reality that some employees are only working for their own interests. They have their own financial goals (e.g. buy a house, buy a car, build a retirement fund) and they are likely to focus on that. If you can somehow make the employee bonus plan coincide with their individual financial goals, then that would definitely generate good results, since it is a win-win situation for the employee. They will recognize that, once they help the company grow and earn a profit, they will also earn more money for themselves in the form of these bonuses.Be clear on the WHAT, the WHY, and the HOW. Specifically, you have to be up front about what bonus is being given, why it is being given, and how the employees can get them, or what the employees should do in order to be entitled to the bonuses. Identify what the bonus is about. If you do not establish clearly why these bonuses are given, the employees might get the wrong idea. They will be motivated to do better, yes, but they may end up focusing their efforts in the wrong direction.Make sure everybody gets something. In the spirit of fairness and providing equitable bon uses, the bonus should be structured in such a way that the lowest levels are easy to achieve. Setting the lowest levels very high means there is a chance that some of the employees that do not perform as well as the others may not get anything. Doing this will ensure that everybody gets something, at least, even if it is a minimal amount. More importantly, it will motivate the less-performing ones to step it up and do better in order to get more bonuses in the future.Make the financial reward a strong enough incentive. If it is a very minimal amount, then employees would not feel as motivated as they should. Usually, employees appreciate bonuses that are a certain percentage of their basic salary or compensation, instead of getting a one-time amount.This is the part where a bonus program can be a source of great frustration among employees. They become extremely disappointed when they realize that, after putting in so much work to achieve superior results, they get only a meager or modest amount for their efforts.If you are running a sales team and are thinking of introducing an employee bonus plan for them, then learn from this presentation.[slideshare id=28527020doc=webinar-salescomp-presentation-final-131122084616-phpapp02w=640h=330]There are two approaches that are commonly used by businesses when structuring their employee bonus plans. These approaches are based on the achievement of goals of each individual employee, or of a team or department.Per employee â€" In this approach, the plan revolves around the achievement of specific goals of each employee. The bonus is based on the individual performance of the employee, so it is almost entirely up to the employee whether he will be entitled to the bonus or not. If he does not perform up to the standards, then he will not be entitled to a bonus, or he may be entitled to a small amount than those who managed to achieve their individual goals.Per team or department â€" Each team or department has its own goa ls, and the employees who are members of the team or department will work together towards the attainment of these goals. The bonus plan may be structured such that they will receive incentives upon achievement of these goals.It is in the best interests of any company to have a well-designed and well-structured employee bonus plan in place. Business owners and management may think that these plans are only for the benefit of the employees but, in the long run, even the administration and the overall performance of the business will be affected by how these bonus programs are designed, and subsequently implemented.

ADHD and CBT - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 846 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/07/31 Category Medicine Essay Level High school Tags: ADHD essay Did you like this example? ADHD is the most common neurodevelopmental disorder in children. Unfortunately, if an individual is diagnosed with ADHD as a child there is a good chance it will become chronic and persist into adulthood (Robinson, Rogers, 2018). The condition is a neural development disorder that affects an individuals attention span, organization skills, impulsive behavior, and hyperactivity. ADHD comes with negative problems that can impact an individuals well-being. Problems such as academic performance, social life, interpersonal relationships, and lower self-esteem (Ramos-Galarza, C., Fiallo-Karolys, X., Ramos, V., Jad?- n-Guerrero, J., Paredes-N?z, L. 2018). Not only do these impairments affect the individual with ADHD it also affects the family associated with the individual (Hodgkins, Shaw, McCarthy, Sallee, 2012). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "ADHD and CBT" essay for you Create order Literature Review Prevalence/Diagnosis/Symptoms Research shows that over the past couple of decades the number of Americans diagnosed with ADHD have steadily increased (Robinson, Rogers, 2018). From 1997 to 2006 research recorded a three percent increase rate of diagnosing those with ADHD (Robinson, Rogers, 2018). The prevalence rate of the American population is five percent; the majority of individuals diagnosed are male, and in children 90% diagnosed are boys (Schlachter, S. 2008). Increasing evidence suggests that there is a 60% chance children with ADHD will have clinically ADHD symptoms as adults (Saleh, A., Fuchs, C., Taylor, W. D., Niarhos, F, 2018). However, most boys are diagnosed between the ages of 7 and 12 (Schlachter, S. 2008). The diagnosing process for children is usually done by a variety of medical professionals such as pediatricians, general practitioners, or mental health specialist. In most cases teachers, parents, coaches, and other caregivers notice ADHD symptoms and thus play a role in diagnosing a child (Schlachter, S. 2008). Compared to children, diagnosing adults is much more complicated and requires more work. The process for adults to be diagnosed includes experimental tasks, application of scales, test, and a deep clinical analysis (Ramos-Galarza, C., Fiallo-Karolys, X., Ramos, V., Jad n-Guerrero, J., Paredes-Nz, L. 2018). Comorbidity If a family member is diagnosed with ADHD it can cause the family to experience hardships financially and emotionally and ultimately can result in a family breakdown. ADHD individuals often causes problems for spouses, family member, and friends who complain about them not listening, being forgetful, and overreacting. Family members are also exhausted from the mental and physical labor involved with caring for an ADHD child (T. Hirvikoski E. Waaler,T. Lindstrem, S. Belte, J. Jokinen). It is considered a public health concern because ADHD is associated with substance disorder and crime, thus there is a need for effective treatment. Studies have shown that ADHD also associates with severe traffic accidents, relationship issues, and problems at the workplace. More importantly studies have been done to test the impact ADHD has on an individuals health related quality of life (HRQL). The studies have showed negative association of adults and children between ADHD and HRQL. However, studies shows that when effective treatment is in place for ADHD individuals the HRQL increases (Hodgkins, P., Shaw, M., McCarthy, S., Sallee, 2012). Studies suggest that 65% children with have ADHD also are diagnosed with a psychiatric or behavioral issue (Schlachter, S. 2008). The National Comorbidity Survey Replication shows that adults who have ADHD can be comorbid with mood disorder, anxiety disorders, impulse control, and substance use disorder. Results indicate a comorbidity between ADHD and mood disorder is 38%, 47% in anxiety disorder, 20% for impulse control, and 15% for substance use disorder Saleh, A., Fuchs, C., Taylor, W. D., Niarhos, F. (2018). Adolescent/Parents ADHD is often detected early on in childhood, between 5-10% of children is estimated to have ADHD. Originally, to be diagnosed symptoms had to be present before the age of 7. Further studies were done and indicated that 7 was too strict to identify an onset of symptoms. Thus leading to the DSM-5 to require an onset of symptoms prior to the age of 12 instead of 7 (Taylor, M. J., Larsson, H., Gillberg, C., Lichtenstein, P., Lundstrem, S. 2018). For a child to be diagnosed with ADHD there must be evidence of symptoms affecting their function in multiple settings. For example, a child is observed at home by the parents of the child and at school by their teacher. Health care professionals evaluate a childs behavior and interpret their observations to test for ADHD. However, there remains a debate because no objective test is given, it is up to clinical judgement on whether or not an individual has ADHD (Holland, J., Sayal, K. (2018). Adult The college population is also heavily affected by ADHD, many studies associate untreated ADHD with lower academic success. The studies also suggests higher psychiatric problems in those with ADHD compared to the whole student population (Saleh, A., Fuchs, C., Taylor, W. D., Niarhos, F, 2018) ADHD in adults often affects individuals in the workplace. In the U.S labor force ADHD accounts for 120 million days of annual lost work, which results in 19.5 billion lost human (Saleh, A., Fuchs, C., Taylor, W. D., Niarhos, F, 2018). Treatment Since ADHD is one of the most common psychiatric disorders it is important that there are treatment options for those individuals. The condition is associated with numerous of impairments that affects ones life (Hodgkins, P., Shaw, M., McCarthy, S., Sallee, F. R. 2012).

10 Facts About the Wild Woolly Mammoth

Snake Venom Free Essays

string(107) " These fangs have a groove running on the lateral side of the fang which helps direct venom into the prey\." Venom Venom Types Methods of Production Methods of Delivery Offense or Defense? Lethal injection or False alarm? Mysteries Warnings To most people venom and snakes go hand in hand. It is commonly believed that all snakes are venomous, but this is an erroneous belief. Of the 2. We will write a custom essay sample on Snake Venom or any similar topic only for you Order Now 700 known species of snake only 300 are venomous. So what is venom, how did snakes get it and why do they have it? These are questions that have interested herpetologists and other scientists alike. Venom itself is a poison secreted by animals for either defensive or offensive purposes. Venom originated from digestive enzymes that were originally located in the stomach. Throughout the millions of years it has progressed quite a lot and in some animals has become quite different from it’s origin. The type of venom depends on the type of animal. In spiders venom is kept rather simple. It is pretty much just digestive enzymes. Spiders use their venom to turn their hard shelled insect meals into nice and nutritious goo. So in a sense one can think of this type of venom as a form of starting the digestive process before you even start to eat the meal. In insects venom is used predominantly as a defensive weapon. Wasps, bees and ants use formic acid in their stings to cause a painful burning sensation that will either kill or injure their enemy enough to make them think twice about attacking them again. Amphibians all use their venom for defense. In amphibians the venom is secreted through glands in the skin to make the animals unpalatable. So as we can see venom is a predominantly defensive adaptation. An adaptation that has found it’s way into every class of vertebrates except one. The birds; the only class to forego any venom. In mammals we have platypi with venomous claws, then there are the fish which comprise too many venomous species to count and finally we have the reptiles. All venomous reptiles are squamates and of them snakes make up the bulk. There are only two species of venomous squamates that are not snakes, the lizards of the genus: Heloderma. These lizards use their venom for defense as well and can deliver powerful and painful bites. In snakes venom has found a new use, for offense. Since snake prey generally has the advantage of speed (not to say that snakes can’t be speedy. A black mamba traveling at 17 mph is nothing to sneeze at. snakes had to find a new way to take down their prey without running the risk of losing them or getting too hurt in the process. Enter venom, a fast and effective mode of subdueing prey items with minimal risk to the snake. Venom types Snake venom can be divided into two broad (yet fuzzy) categories. That of hemotoxicity and neurotoxicity. Hemotoxic venom effects the blood and organs, causing a breakdown or inflammation in the body. Hemotoxic bites are the most painful as breathing hurts and tissues start to die. Neurotoxic venom, as the name suggests, effect the nervous system, leading to everything from siezures to death. Neurotoxic bites are the most deadly. Although we have these two wonderful different categories, no snake fits completely in each. Many snakes incorporate both neurotoxic and hemotoxic venom in their bites so when telling them apart one goes by which type is more predominant. For instance Ophiophagous hannah (King Cobra) has predominantly neurotoxic venom while Crotalus adamanteus (Eastern diamondback rattlesnake) has predominantly hemotoxic venom. Methods of production While getting bitten by a snake might strike fear in people, the fangs are not where the venom comes from, they are mearly methods of transfer. The place where the venom is made is in special glands located on the head of the animal. The venom glands differentiate into false and true venom glands. False venom glands (a misleading name no doubt) are made up either from mucus producing supralabial glands that run on either side of the head extending as a continuous strip from near the snout to below and well behind the eye. These then lead to several ducts that lead to the bases of many maxillary teeth. Alethinophidians are known to have this type of arrangement. Most colubrids have a different arrangement. Rather than use those modified salivary glands they use a larger gland known as the Duvernoy’s gland. This gland is situated right under the skin, above and near the angle of the jaw. These glands open from a duct at the base of one or more posterior usually enlarged fangs that may or may not be grooved. These glands do not have a lumen (central storage chamber) so the snakes must give off a continous stream of venom into their prey which means that they must continue to hold on to the animal to ensure envenomation. True venom glands are made uf thick connective tissue. They contain a lumen, a separate compressor muscle and a duct connecting them to a single fang on each side of the jaw. These glands dominate all elapids and viperids (along with some atractaspidids) Methods of Delivery Their are four main types of teeth in snakes with which venom is transferred from gland to prey. While these forms seem to indicate a continual progression towards more complexity, they are misleading as it doesn’t take into account the morphological variation in snake dentitions making for a paraphyletic occurence (that is they all thought up different ways to accomplish the same goal). Aglyphous snakes Aglyphous (grooveless) snakes lack any groove in their teeth for venom to run down. Instead the venom drips down the teeth from any available opening essentially saturating the maxillae. In order for envenomation to occur the snake must chew on it’s prey which is time consuming. Aglyphous snakes include blind snakes and some colubrids. Opisthoglyphous snakes Opisthoglyphous (rear grooved) snakes have elongate fangs located on the top of the back of their mouths. These fangs have a groove running on the lateral side of the fang which helps direct venom into the prey. You read "Snake Venom" in category "Essay examples" Since the fangs are located posteriorly the snake must make a point of taking a big bite into it’s prey in order to assure envenomation. Colubrids make up the bulk of this group. Proteroglyphs Proteroglyphs (front groove) snakes are pretty much all elapids with an occasional actractaspidid like Homoroselaps (Harlequin snakes). In proteroglyphs the groove has run so deep that both sides of the groove overlap eachother forming a channel for the venom to flow. A lumen is located at the base of the tooth where venom eagerly awaits ejection while a discharge orifice lay on one side near the tip. An adductor (jaw closing) muscle is attached to the glands so that when the snake bites down the glands get squeezed and a stream of venom flows into the prey. These snakes are â€Å"fixed fanged. † That is to say they are unable to fold up their fangs when not in use so the fangs must be kept short enough so as not to puncture the lower jaw. Interestingly enough fixed fanged elapids are known to hold onto their prey after biting. This would seem to present a potential hazard for the snake, but the predominantly neurotoxic venom works so fast that the prey doesn’t have enough time to struggle, thus ensuring the snake it’s meal. Some cobra types such as the rinkhals (Hemachatus haemachatus) and many species of Afro-Asian cobras (Naja sp. ) have the ability to spit their venom at predators. Their fang tips have beveled, circular (sometimes pear shaped) apertures on the anterior surface just above the tip where the venom is ejected. African spitters go one stepped further. They have spiral grooves in their fangs that (like the riflings of a gun barrel) force a spin on the venom allowing for greater accuracy. This is only used in defense and is amazing effective as these snakes are adepth marksmen. By expending venom in these little droplets, the snake is guaranteed the maximum use of it’s (normally offensive) venom when battling a predator. How often can these snakes spit before running out. Well one black necked spitting cobra (Naja nigricollis) emptied it’s venom glands by spitting fifty seven times in only twenty minutes. Truly a force to be reckoned with. Solenoglyphous snakes Solenoglyphous (pipe grooved) snakes make up the viperidae and show some of the most specialized teeth for the job. Viperid fangs have the groove so deep now that the outside of the teeth completely cover it forming a pipe for venom to enter. The two fangs are attached to a short highly movable maxillary bone. This bone allows the snakes to fold their fangs up in their mouths. This ability to fold up the fangs allows for greater fang length. How much greater? Well compare a 3. 83-m Ophiophagous hannah’s 11mm fangs to a 1. 8-m Bitis gabonica (Gaboon viper) with fangs measuring 29mm. Impressive no? Viperids have predominantly hemotoxic venom and as such, their bites take longer to take effect. Since the effect is longer, the snake can’t risk holding onto the struggling prey for it would surely get hurt, but with their potent venom, quick strikes and hyperextendable fangs, these snakes are able to get in and out extremely fast. Not only can the fangs hyperextend (up to 1800) but with the separately jointed maxillae the fangs can move individually as well. So a viper can decide whether or not to move one fang or two. Inject one side or two. The amount of venom control in vipers is astounding as well as their venom reservoirs. The bulk of Bitis gabonica’s head is it’s venom glands. Shocking! Offense or Defense As stated before, snakes predominantly use their venom to capture prey, but when push comes to shove, venom can mean the difference between life and death. Snake defense is rather limited when one thinks about it. They can’t outrun their predators, a lack of limbs means that gaining the leverage for tail whipping is rather impossible (pointless anyway seeing as how most snakes have rather small tails). Some snakes can secrete nasty substances that make them unwanted to be around. Others feign their own deaths, but in general the best area of defense for snakes lies in their jaws. For a venomous snake, biting a predator means wasting precious venom; a commodity that doesn’t come without it’s price. Venom costs energy to make and takes a while to refill when empty. A snake would much rather save that venom for something worth it like food, so it takes quite a bit of pressing to get a venomous snake to actually bite. In fact it is for these reasons that venomous snakes have adopted so many warning strategies. From warning colors, to hoods, to rattles, venomous snakes do everything in their power to avoid biting the enemy. In contrast a boid or other constrictor will readily bite in defense. While they lack venom, recurved teeth can be just as bad and since constrictors don’t have to worry about wasting venom they can feel free to bite all they want. Lethal injection or False alarm? Along with warning well in advance, another common thing found in venomous snakes (especially viperids) is giving what is known as a â€Å"dry bite. † Dry bites occur when a snake like a rattler is cornered and forced to bite in defense. While the snake might be in last resort mode, it still has one more trick up it’s sleeve. Venomous snakes (true venomous snakes) have the ability to choose whether or not they want to inject venom into something. So if a rattlesnake bites a dog, it has the choice of either envenomating or bluffing the animal. In nature bluffs work much of the time and are the safest way for an animal to avoid a fight. By giving off a dry bite, venomous snakes need not waste their venom supplies. In fact over half of all rattlesnake bites are dry ones. A very comforting thought. Mysteries of Venomous Snakes One of the strangest things about elapids and viperids is that they seem to have evolved venom that is too potent for their own good. For instance, a Western rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis) injects it’s prey (a mouse) with 300 times more venom than is necessary. Or the Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) which injects enough venom in one bite to kill two hundred thousand mice. Why the excess? No one knows for sure. Perhaps the mechanisms that produced the venom never had any buffers for how powerful it got. Since the evolution of new traits involves the constantly ascending path (new traits are only kept if beneficial to the organism) the fact that ever potent venom would always guarantee the quick death of the prey means that it would always be selected for and will be until something comes to counter it. While this is a nice theory and all, there is an underlying problem with it. Venomous snakes (of at least the elapid and viperid families) are able to meter out how much venom they intend to inject into their prey. So that Crotalus viridis is quite aware of the amount it is pumping into that mouse. Plus since venom replenishment is not the fastest thing (averaging between 4 days and three weeks) injecting so much venom seems wasteful. Another theory proposed was that it the venom helps to begin the digestion process. Surely this seems reasonable especially considered how venom effects tissue along with it’s origins. Yet that too does not give a perfect explanation for Brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis) which inject three to eight times more venom than necessary, end up with half of that venom lodged in the skin. So for now, the reasons behind the excess venom delivery by venomous snakes are still unknown. Warnings about venom While no person should actively go out and try to capture a venomous snake (without good reason) in the even that one finds said snake, the best precautions are to examine the encounter. If you’re far enough away to leave then feel free to do so, you need not worry about the snake following you. If you’re practically stepping on the snake things could be worse. At that point though one usually finds that one has been bitten. If bitten make sure to ID the snake. Remember as much as possible about it. For an idea of the type of venom that might have been injected in you consider the area that you are at and how the snake looked. Vipers, due to their large venom glands, have heart shaped heads. Elapids have nice thin heads. Colubrids are harder to tell apart from elapids, but a venomous elapid will give warning or have some type of forewarning available. Colubrid bites normally don’t kill and are more a pain than anything else. Viper bites can be deadly and normally are very painful. Elapid bites are extremely lethal and antivenin treatment is a must if bitten. Although all this seems scary, it’s best to remember that no venomous snake will attack without severe provocation. Look for the warning signs and watch where you step and you should be fine. Also remember many bites given are dry, so just because you were bitten doesn’t mean you were envenomated. A good rule of thumb when dealing with a scared or cornered snake is that the last thing it’s going to want to do is bite. Venom Venom Types Methods of Production Methods of Delivery Offense or Defense? Lethal injection or False alarm? Mysteries Warnings To most people venom and snakes go hand in hand. It is commonly believed that all snakes are venomous, but this is an erroneous belief. Of the 2. 700 known species of snake only 300 are venomous. So what is venom, how did snakes get it and why do they have it? These are questions that have interested herpetologists and other scientists alike. Venom itself is a poison secreted by animals for either defensive or offensive purposes. Venom originated from digestive enzymes that were originally located in the stomach. Throughout the millions of years it has progressed quite a lot and in some animals has become quite different from it’s origin. The type of venom depends on the type of animal. In spiders venom is kept rather simple. It is pretty much just digestive enzymes. Spiders use their venom to turn their hard shelled insect meals into nice and nutritious goo. So in a sense one can think of this type of venom as a form of starting the digestive process before you even start to eat the meal. In insects venom is used predominantly as a defensive weapon. Wasps, bees and ants use formic acid in their stings to cause a painful burning sensation that will either kill or injure their enemy enough to make them think twice about attacking them again. Amphibians all use their venom for defense. In amphibians the venom is secreted through glands in the skin to make the animals unpalatable. So as we can see venom is a predominantly defensive adaptation. An adaptation that has found it’s way into every class of vertebrates except one. The birds; the only class to forego any venom. In mammals we have platypi with venomous claws, then there are the fish which comprise too many venomous species to count and finally we have the reptiles. All venomous reptiles are squamates and of them snakes make up the bulk. There are only two species of venomous squamates that are not snakes, the lizards of the genus: Heloderma. These lizards use their venom for defense as well and can deliver powerful and painful bites. In snakes venom has found a new use, for offense. Since snake prey generally has the advantage of speed (not to say that snakes can’t be speedy. A black mamba traveling at 17 mph is nothing to sneeze at. snakes had to find a new way to take down their prey without running the risk of losing them or getting too hurt in the process. Enter venom, a fast and effective mode of subdueing prey items with minimal risk to the snake. Venom types Snake venom can be divided into two broad (yet fuzzy) categories. That of hemotoxicity and neurotoxicity. Hemotoxic venom effects the blood and organs, causing a breakdown or inflammation in the body. Hemotoxic bites are the most painful as breathing hurts and tissues start to die. Neurotoxic venom, as the name suggests, effect the nervous system, leading to everything from siezures to death. Neurotoxic bites are the most deadly. Although we have these two wonderful different categories, no snake fits completely in each. Many snakes incorporate both neurotoxic and hemotoxic venom in their bites so when telling them apart one goes by which type is more predominant. For instance Ophiophagous hannah (King Cobra) has predominantly neurotoxic venom while Crotalus adamanteus (Eastern diamondback rattlesnake) has predominantly hemotoxic venom. Methods of production While getting bitten by a snake might strike fear in people, the fangs are not where the venom comes from, they are mearly methods of transfer. The place where the venom is made is in special glands located on the head of the animal. The venom glands differentiate into false and true venom glands. False venom glands (a misleading name no doubt) are made up either from mucus producing supralabial glands that run on either side of the head extending as a continuous strip from near the snout to below and well behind the eye. These then lead to several ducts that lead to the bases of many maxillary teeth. Alethinophidians are known to have this type of arrangement. Most colubrids have a different arrangement. Rather than use those modified salivary glands they use a larger gland known as the Duvernoy’s gland. This gland is situated right under the skin, above and near the angle of the jaw. These glands open from a duct at the base of one or more posterior usually enlarged fangs that may or may not be grooved. These glands do not have a lumen (central storage chamber) so the snakes must give off a continous stream of venom into their prey which means that they must continue to hold on to the animal to ensure envenomation. True venom glands are made uf thick connective tissue. They contain a lumen, a separate compressor muscle and a duct connecting them to a single fang on each side of the jaw. These glands dominate all elapids and viperids (along with some atractaspidids) Methods of Delivery Their are four main types of teeth in snakes with which venom is transferred from gland to prey. While these forms seem to indicate a continual progression towards more complexity, they are misleading as it doesn’t take into account the morphological variation in snake dentitions making for a paraphyletic occurence (that is they all thought up different ways to accomplish the same goal). Aglyphous snakes Aglyphous (grooveless) snakes lack any groove in their teeth for venom to run down. Instead the venom drips down the teeth from any available opening essentially saturating the maxillae. In order for envenomation to occur the snake must chew on it’s prey which is time consuming. Aglyphous snakes include blind snakes and some colubrids. Opisthoglyphous snakes Opisthoglyphous (rear grooved) snakes have elongate fangs located on the top of the back of their mouths. These fangs have a groove running on the lateral side of the fang which helps direct venom into the prey. Since the fangs are located posteriorly the snake must make a point of taking a big bite into it’s prey in order to assure envenomation. Colubrids make up the bulk of this group. Proteroglyphs Proteroglyphs (front groove) snakes are pretty much all elapids with an occasional actractaspidid like Homoroselaps (Harlequin snakes). In proteroglyphs the groove has run so deep that both sides of the groove overlap eachother forming a channel for the venom to flow. A lumen is located at the base of the tooth where venom eagerly awaits ejection while a discharge orifice lay on one side near the tip. An adductor (jaw closing) muscle is attached to the glands so that when the snake bites down the glands get squeezed and a stream of venom flows into the prey. These snakes are â€Å"fixed fanged. † That is to say they are unable to fold up their fangs when not in use so the fangs must be kept short enough so as not to puncture the lower jaw. Interestingly enough fixed fanged elapids are known to hold onto their prey after biting. This would seem to present a potential hazard for the snake, but the predominantly neurotoxic venom works so fast that the prey doesn’t have enough time to struggle, thus ensuring the snake it’s meal. Some cobra types such as the rinkhals (Hemachatus haemachatus) and many species of Afro-Asian cobras (Naja sp. ) have the ability to spit their venom at predators. Their fang tips have beveled, circular (sometimes pear shaped) apertures on the anterior surface just above the tip where the venom is ejected. African spitters go one stepped further. They have spiral grooves in their fangs that (like the riflings of a gun barrel) force a spin on the venom allowing for greater accuracy. This is only used in defense and is amazing effective as these snakes are adepth marksmen. By expending venom in these little droplets, the snake is guaranteed the maximum use of it’s (normally offensive) venom when battling a predator. How often can these snakes spit before running out. Well one black necked spitting cobra (Naja nigricollis) emptied it’s venom glands by spitting fifty seven times in only twenty minutes. Truly a force to be reckoned with. Solenoglyphous snakes Solenoglyphous (pipe grooved) snakes make up the viperidae and show some of the most specialized teeth for the job. Viperid fangs have the groove so deep now that the outside of the teeth completely cover it forming a pipe for venom to enter. The two fangs are attached to a short highly movable maxillary bone. This bone allows the snakes to fold their fangs up in their mouths. This ability to fold up the fangs allows for greater fang length. How much greater? Well compare a 3. 83-m Ophiophagous hannah’s 11mm fangs to a 1. 8-m Bitis gabonica (Gaboon viper) with fangs measuring 29mm. Impressive no? Viperids have predominantly hemotoxic venom and as such, their bites take longer to take effect. Since the effect is longer, the snake can’t risk holding onto the struggling prey for it would surely get hurt, but with their potent venom, quick strikes and hyperextendable fangs, these snakes are able to get in and out extremely fast. Not only can the fangs hyperextend (up to 1800) but with the separately jointed maxillae the fangs can move individually as well. So a viper can decide whether or not to move one fang or two. Inject one side or two. The amount of venom control in vipers is astounding as well as their venom reservoirs. The bulk of Bitis gabonica’s head is it’s venom glands. Shocking! Offense or Defense As stated before, snakes predominantly use their venom to capture prey, but when push comes to shove, venom can mean the difference between life and death. Snake defense is rather limited when one thinks about it. They can’t outrun their predators, a lack of limbs means that gaining the leverage for tail whipping is rather impossible (pointless anyway seeing as how most snakes have rather small tails). Some snakes can secrete nasty substances that make them unwanted to be around. Others feign their own deaths, but in general the best area of defense for snakes lies in their jaws. For a venomous snake, biting a predator means wasting precious venom; a commodity that doesn’t come without it’s price. Venom costs energy to make and takes a while to refill when empty. A snake would much rather save that venom for something worth it like food, so it takes quite a bit of pressing to get a venomous snake to actually bite. In fact it is for these reasons that venomous snakes have adopted so many warning strategies. From warning colors, to hoods, to rattles, venomous snakes do everything in their power to avoid biting the enemy. In contrast a boid or other constrictor will readily bite in defense. While they lack venom, recurved teeth can be just as bad and since constrictors don’t have to worry about wasting venom they can feel free to bite all they want. Lethal injection or False alarm? Along with warning well in advance, another common thing found in venomous snakes (especially viperids) is giving what is known as a â€Å"dry bite. † Dry bites occur when a snake like a rattler is cornered and forced to bite in defense. While the snake might be in last resort mode, it still has one more trick up it’s sleeve. Venomous snakes (true venomous snakes) have the ability to choose whether or not they want to inject venom into something. So if a rattlesnake bites a dog, it has the choice of either envenomating or bluffing the animal. In nature bluffs work much of the time and are the safest way for an animal to avoid a fight. By giving off a dry bite, venomous snakes need not waste their venom supplies. In fact over half of all rattlesnake bites are dry ones. A very comforting thought. Mysteries of Venomous Snakes One of the strangest things about elapids and viperids is that they seem to have evolved venom that is too potent for their own good. For instance, a Western rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis) injects it’s prey (a mouse) with 300 times more venom than is necessary. Or the Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) which injects enough venom in one bite to kill two hundred thousand mice. Why the excess? No one knows for sure. Perhaps the mechanisms that produced the venom never had any buffers for how powerful it got. Since the evolution of new traits involves the constantly ascending path (new traits are only kept if beneficial to the organism) the fact that ever potent venom would always guarantee the quick death of the prey means that it would always be selected for and will be until something comes to counter it. While this is a nice theory and all, there is an underlying problem with it. Venomous snakes (of at least the elapid and viperid families) are able to meter out how much venom they intend to inject into their prey. So that Crotalus viridis is quite aware of the amount it is pumping into that mouse. Plus since venom replenishment is not the fastest thing (averaging between 4 days and three weeks) injecting so much venom seems wasteful. Another theory proposed was that it the venom helps to begin the digestion process. Surely this seems reasonable especially considered how venom effects tissue along with it’s origins. Yet that too does not give a perfect explanation for Brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis) which inject three to eight times more venom than necessary, end up with half of that venom lodged in the skin. So for now, the reasons behind the excess venom delivery by venomous snakes are still unknown. Warnings about venom While no person should actively go out and try to capture a venomous snake (without good reason) in the even that one finds said snake, the best precautions are to examine the encounter. If you’re far enough away to leave then feel free to do so, you need not worry about the snake following you. If you’re practically stepping on the snake things could be worse. At that point though one usually finds that one has been bitten. If bitten make sure to ID the snake. Remember as much as possible about it. For an idea of the type of venom that might have been injected in you consider the area that you are at and how the snake looked. Vipers, due to their large venom glands, have heart shaped heads. Elapids have nice thin heads. Colubrids are harder to tell apart from elapids, but a venomous elapid will give warning or have some type of forewarning available. Colubrid bites normally don’t kill and are more a pain than anything else. Viper bites can be deadly and normally are very painful. Elapid bites are extremely lethal and antivenin treatment is a must if bitten. Although all this seems scary, it’s best to remember that no venomous snake will attack without severe provocation. Look for the warning signs and watch where you step and you should be fine. Also remember many bites given are dry, so just because you were bitten doesn’t mean you were envenomated. A good rule of thumb when dealing with a scared or cornered snake is that the last thing it’s going to want to do is bite. How to cite Snake Venom, Essay examples

Disability Support Services free essay sample

Ali Tichow Professor Bacha English 101-2DA September 6, 2012 â€Å"Disabled† Malignant Malalignment, or as it is more casually known, Miserable Malalignment, is a leg condition that causes the bones to twist as they grow. When I was 12, I was diagnosed with this condition, and at the time my doctors recommended that I wait to see if I might outgrow this ailment. Sadly, it worsened and this summer I had reconstructive leg surgery to correct the problem. Not only did the surgery immobilize me for what could have been an exciting and fun summer, it also posed challenges for the start of the school year. I wasn’t sure how I would manage to get around campus while my bones were still healing. I contacted UAB’s Disability Support Services (DSS) and set up an Intake Interview and an Accommodations Conference. It seemed weird to be considered â€Å"disabled† after so many years of just being a normal kid. I also feel bad being categorized as disabled because it is only a temporary thing for me; once my bones heal I’ll be back to normal. Getting to the point of surgery was quite a process. It took 5 years for my parents and I to find the right orthopedic surgeon for me. My condition is unusual and the doctors in Huntsville were not experienced with the surgery I needed. We travelled all over the state and even to Ohio and Michigan before finding the right surgeon. Finally in September of 2011 I got an appointment to see Dr. Tietge, a world renowned orthopedic surgeon in Detroit, to be evaluated for surgery. After he took X-rays and CT-scans he told us there was no doubt in his mind that I needed to have a femoral and tibial rotational osteotomy on both legs, which is a procedure where the surgeon breaks the patients leg in three places in order to turn the bones and straighten the leg out from its prior twisted position. Dr. Tietge said that mine was the worst case of Malignant Malaignment he had seen. He was booked solid for surgery for a year, and I couldn’t schedule my appointment until June 2012. This worried me because my first surgery would be less than wo months before I planned to start college and I had no idea what kind of condition I would be in when I left for school. My mom and I arrived in Detroit on June 18th, and I had my pre-surgery consultation appointment the next day. I was told my surgery would probably take 4-5 hours and that I would be in the hospital for 3-5 days afterwards, and then I’d be free to go home. I went into surgery on Thursday, June 21st at 7am and didn’t get out until a little after 3 pm. I don’t remember much from that day. The next thing I remembered after being prepped for surgery was waking up the next morning in the hospital. I was in the hospital until it was time to leave to go to the airport the following Monday morning to fly home. Once we arrived back home I spent the rest of June and most of July laid up in bed or on the couch. I started physical therapy to regain my range of motion the last week of July. I spent a lot of time thinking about how it would be starting college and dealing with healing at the same time while I was laid up. I did some research on how I could get issued a handicapped (ADA) dorm room and what other things that the school might be able to provide for me. I emailed UAB’s disability support services and they sent me forms that my doctor and I had to fill out describing my â€Å"disability† in detail and explaining what difficulties it presents me with. By the time the forms were all filled out and mailed to DSS it was already almost August, and I was worried that it might be too late to arrange for accommodations. I got a call from DSS to set up my intake interview to discuss my, and my doctors, requests for accommodations. I came down to Birmingham a little over a week before move in day and met with one of the people from DSS and got all my accommodations sorted out. The only one they couldn’t do was my doctors request for me to have a single occupancy dorm room, this was because of how overcrowded things were along with how late I got my forms turned in. I wasn’t quite sure how that would work out since I knew it would be difficult maneuvering around another person. After my intake interview the only thing I had left to figure out was how I was going to get to all my classes. At home I’d been using crutches but only going very short distances and not really having to carry anything. At school I knew I’d have to go all over campus for my lasses and carry my class supplies with me. I couldn’t drive yet because my surgery had been on my right leg and I hadn’t been cleared for any weight bearing at all so I was really worried about it. My mom and I starting looking into what my options might be and we came to the conclusion that the best solution would be a power chair. We found a store near where we lived t hat sold them and finally got one two days before move in day. By the day before move in I had pretty much gotten all of my things packed into boxes and suitcases and had my power chair loaded up in the back of my parents van. The morning of move in day I rode down to Birmingham with my boyfriend, we brought most of my stuff in his truck; and my parents came down later on in the afternoon to bring my chair and a few other things we couldn’t fit in the truck. Getting all moved in wasn’t as bad as I thought it would be; the only challenging part was learning how to control my chair well because its controls are very sensitive. Move in day was also the first day I’d seen how the ADA room was set up; I felt a little better about having a roommate after seeing it, because they are a lot more spacious the regular rooms. Move in day was a Saturday, and I had until Thursday to get settled in before classes started which was nice. It gave me time to get adjusted to my power chair and figure out where everything I needed on campus was. After having 5 days to get adjusted to campus I wasn’t really too worried about how my classes would be. I had two classes scheduled for Mondays, three for Tuesdays and Thursdays, a lab scheduled Wednesday nights, and no classes on Fridays, so I had plenty of time to do my work in between classes and anything else I might have to do in order to stay ahead and do well. I’m really lucky that UAB has a program like DSS to handle my accommodations, I don’t know what I would do if I didn’t have the ability to have an ADA room and receive other services from them that allow me to have just as good of a college experience as those students who don’t have any disabilities. Hopefully by the end of this semester I will have progressed enough in physical therapy to not need my chair or any of my prearranged accommodations here at school. The experience I have had with physical therapy so far is part of the reason that I want to go to PT school and become a doctor of physical therapy myself.